Studies on this topic demonstrate that most Donor Conceived People report generally positive or neutral feelings about being donor conceived, particularly when told early, but experiences can vary widely, especially in relation to identity, searching for connections, and stigma. The literature uses a mix of different research designs, allowing for both rich accounts of lived experience and insights into developmental patterns across the lifespan.
Overall, the literature is strong in capturing this variation and complexity, but is limited by an overrepresentation of female and sperm donor conceived participants, who have mostly been raised in heterosexual couple families. The literature is also limited by the fact that those who do not know that they are donor conceived are unlikely to take part in research. There is also limited evidence on how representative these experiences are across different family and/or donation types.
Note also that the majority of research into identity and psychological well-being of DCP over the past decade has focused on donor conceived children and donor conceived young people. We are finding in the Donor Conceived UK community, many DCP’s feelings about being donor conceived change towards the negative the older they get, particularly if they have children.
Main Papers
Paper 1
How Young Adults Feel About Being Donor-Conceived or Born Through Surrogacy
Authors: Jadva, V., Jones, C., Hall, P., Imrie, S., Golombok, S. 2023
Key Words: donor conception, surrogacy, young adults, identity, psychological wellbeing, disclosure, donor feelings, family relationships, curiosity
Aim: To understand how young adults feel about being born through donor conception or surrogacy, including their identity, relationships, and interest in donors or surrogates.
Findings: Most young adults felt either positive or unconcerned about their conception, and early disclosure appeared to be linked to more comfortable and well-adjusted feelings, with curiosity about donors present but not always leading to active searching.
Participants: 35 young adults: 17 male, 18 female, mean age: around 20 years. Conception types included 11 egg donation, 9 sperm donation, and 15 surrogacy (10 traditional, 5 gestational). Most were told about their conception early (usually before age 4) and were born to heterosexual couples.
Methodology: Young adults took part in semi-structured interviews online, where they were asked about their feelings about their conception, whether they talk about it with others, and whether they want to meet their donor or surrogate.
Paper 2
What It’s Like for Donor-Conceived Adults to Search (or Not Search) for Biological Connections
Authors: Zadeh, S., Jones, C., & Jadva, V. 2024
Key Words: donor conception, donor connections, donor siblings, identity, searching behaviour, DNA testing, social media, genetic history, belonging
Aim: To explore the experiences and outcomes of donor-conceived adults who are actively searching for, open to contact with, or not searching for their donor or donor-related connections.
Findings: Experiences of searching for donor connections varied widely, with many participants finding connections but describing the process as complex, ongoing, and emotionally mixed.
Participants: 88 donor-conceived adults: 44% actively searching, 50% open to contact, and 6% not searching. Participants were aged 18-70 years (average age around 34). Most participants were female (74%) and conceived using donor sperm (90%).
Methodology: An online survey conducted between January and August 2022. Participants were recruited via donor conception organisations, social media, and existing participants recommending others they knew who might also be suitable. Data included both closed questions and open-ended responses.
Paper 3
How Donor-Conceived Adults Use DNA Registers to Find Biological Relatives
Authors: Frith, L., Blyth, E., Crawshaw M., van den Akker, O. 2017
Key Words: donor conception, DNA linking register, identity, kinship, donor siblings, searching, family relationships, UK DonorLink, sperm donation
Aim: To explore how donor-conceived adults use a DNA linking register to search for genetic relatives, and how this affects their sense of identity, sense of kinship, and family relationships.
Findings: Being donor-conceived and searching for genetic relatives had complex and varied effects on identity and family relationships. For some, it helped make sense of their lives and strengthened identity, while for others it created feelings of loss or disruption. Searching often led to meaningful new connections (especially with donor siblings), but also highlighted that biological links do not always translate into close relationships.
Participants: 65 donor-conceived adults, 21-65 years old, 77% female. All registered with UK DonorLink (DNA register) and conceived via anonymous sperm donation (pre-1991).
Methodology: A questionnaire study using online and paper surveys, including both structured and open-ended questions, used to identify patterns in participants’ experiences.
Paper 4
What Support Do Donor-Conceived People Need When Searching for Genetic Relatives?
Authors: Zadeh, S., Jadva, V., Jones, C. 2024
Key Words: donor conception, support needs, DNA testing, counselling, peer support, searching, genetic connections, policy change
Aim: To explore what types of practical and emotional support donor-conceived adults need when searching for or connecting with genetic relatives.
Findings: Donor-conceived adults reported varied awareness of available support and highlighted the need for both practical resources (such as DNA testing and legal changes) and emotional support (such as counselling and peer groups).
Participants: 88 donor-conceived adults, ages: 18-70, 74% female, 22% male, others non-binary / transgender. 90% sperm donation, 8% egg donation, 2% embryo donation. 44% actively searching, 50% open to contact, 6% not searching.
Methodology: Participants completed an online survey with both closed and open-ended questions about their awareness of available resources and their recommendations for practical and emotional support when searching for genetic connections.
Paper 5
How Teenagers Feel About Being Born Through Surrogacy or Donor Conception
Authors: Zadeh, S., Ilioi, E., Jadva, V., Golombok, S. 2018
Key Words: adolescents, donor conception, surrogacy, identity, wellbeing, disclosure, donor relationships
Aim: To understand how adolescents feel about being conceived through surrogacy, egg donation, or sperm donation, and what they think about the donor or surrogate involved.
Findings: Most adolescents felt indifferent about their conception, with some feeling positive or ambivalent, and none reported distress. Many showed curiosity about the donor or surrogate, even when not in contact, while those with contact generally reported positive relationships. Findings challenge the assumption that donor-conceived adolescents experience negative identity outcomes.
Participants: 44 adolescents (aged 14), 22 conceived via surrogacy, 13 via egg donation, and 9 via sperm donation. All were raised in heterosexual two-parent families and were told about their conception in childhood.
Methodology: Researchers conducted a semi-structured interview with adolescents in their homes, asking about their feelings, understanding, and experiences related to their conception and any donor or surrogate.
Paper 6
Do Children Born Through Donor Conception Have Healthy Relationships and Wellbeing as Teenagers?
Authors: Golombok, S., Ilioi, E., Blake, L., Roman, G., Jadva, V. 2017
Key Words: donor conception, adolescence, parent-child relationships, psychological adjustment, surrogacy, egg donation, identity development
Aim: To investigate whether adolescents conceived through reproductive donation display differences in psychological adjustment and parent-child relationships compared to those conceived without assistance.
Findings: Adolescents conceived through reproductive donation showed similar psychological adjustment to non-donor conceived peers, although some differences in parent-child relationships were observed depending on the type of donation.
Participants: 141 families total, with 87 reproductive donation families: 32 sperm donation, 27 egg donation, 28 surrogacy, and 54 natural conception families (comparison group). Adolescents were aged 14 years, and data was collected from mothers, adolescents, and teachers.
Methodology: A study using interviews, questionnaires, and observational tasks to assess parent-adolescent relationships and adolescent psychological adjustment.
Paper 7
Authors: Zadeh, S., Freeman, T., Golombok, S. 2016
Key Words: donor conception, solo mothers, children’s perspectives, father absence, disclosure, identity, child development, family experiences, donor understanding
Aim: To explore what young donor conceived children think, feel, and understand about their families, including donor conception and growing up without a father.
Findings: Most children did not talk about donor conception and instead focused more on the absence of a father, but overall reported positive feelings about their families and friendships.
Participants: 47 donor-conceived children, 4-9 years, 25 girls (53%) and 22 boys (47%), all in single mother families. 57% told their child about donor conception, 16% were partially told, 27% were not told. 51 single mothers, all had children conceived via sperm donation.
Methodology: Researchers visited families at home and conducted semi-structured interviews with both mothers and children. Children were asked simple, open-ended questions about their family, school, and friendships (i.e. they were not explicitly asked about the donor).
Paper 8
What Happens When Donor-Conceived Adults Search (or Don’t Search) for Genetic Relatives?
Authors: Zadeh, S., Jones, C., Jadva, V. 2024
Key Words: donor conception, searching, donor relatives, identity, belonging, family relationships, support, DNA testing
Aim: To explore the experiences and outcomes of donor conceived adults who are actively searching for, open to contact with, or not searching for donor relatives.
Findings: Experiences of searching for and finding donor connections were complex and varied, with many participants across all groups forming connections but reporting mixed outcomes shaped by expectations, identity, and relationships.
Participants: 88 donor conceived adults, 74% female. Conception type: 90% sperm donation. Searching status: 44% actively searching, 50% open to contact, 6% not searching.
Methodology: Participants completed an online survey, including closed and open-ended questions about their experiences of donor conception, searching for connections, and outcomes of finding or not finding relatives.
Additional Papers where donor conceived people’s experiences of being donor conceived is referenced but not a main focus
Paper 9: How At-Home DNA Tests Are Used by Donor-Conceived People and Families
Paper 10: Why UK Laws on Donor Conception Need Updating in the Age of DNA Testing
Paper 11: Wellbeing in Donor-Conceived Young Adults
Paper 13: How DNA Testing Is Changing Family Relationships for Donor-Conceived People
Paper 14: Why UK Laws on Donor Anonymity Need to Change in the Age of DNA Testing
Paper 15: How Donor-Conceived Young Adults in the UK Feel About Using DNA Testing
Paper 16: How Identity and Wellbeing Are Linked to Searching for Donor Relatives
Paper 17: What Support Do People Need When Using DNA Services to Find Donor Relatives?
Paper 18: Does Telling Children Early About Donor Conception Improve Their Wellbeing as Teenagers?
Paper 19: How Do Young Donor-Conceived Children Feel About Their Families and Themselves?
Paper 21: How Identity and Wellbeing Are Linked to Searching for Donor Relatives
Huge thanks to Xinia for putting this page together!