Studies on this topic reveal that Donor Conceived People (DCP) generally report similar levels of wellbeing compared to non-donor-conceived peers on psychological measures. Those with a more positive sense of how being donor conceived fits into their identity show better psychological outcomes and lower stigma. This literature provides insights into psychological development from childhood to adulthood.
Overall, the literature is strong in linking identity processes to wellbeing and using validated measures, but is limited by the fact that those who are experiencing difficulties, are not interested in participating, or do not know that they are donor conceived, are less/unlikely to take part in research. An additional limitation is that there is an overrepresentation of sperm donor conceived participants compared to egg donor conceived participants, and reliance on participants describing their own experiences, which may not always be fully accurate or unbiased.
Note also that the majority of research into identity and psychological well-being of DCP over the past decade has focused on donor conceived children and donor conceived young people. We are finding in the Donor Conceived UK community, many DCP’s feelings about being donor conceived change towards the negative the older they get, particularly if they have children.
Main Papers
Paper 1
Authors: Golombok, S., Jones, C., Hall, P., Foley, S., Imrie, S., Jadva, V. 2023
Key Words: donor conception, surrogacy, psychological wellbeing, family relationships, disclosure, identity, young adults, adjustment, parent-child relationships
Aim: To examine whether young adults conceived through donor conception or surrogacy differ in their mental health and relationships with their mothers compared to those conceived without assistance.
Findings: Young adults conceived through donor conception or surrogacy showed similar psychological wellbeing and family relationships to those conceived without assistance, with no overall negative impact of donor conception.
Participants: 117 mothers (average age around 56 years), 76 young adults (average age around 20 years). Family groups included 22 surrogacy families, 17 egg donation families, 26 sperm donation families, and 52 conceived without assistance d (comparison group). Majority were White British and only donor conceived young adults who knew about their conception were included.
Methodology: This was a study that followed families from early childhood to age 20, using questionnaires and interviews with both mothers and young adults to assess mental health, family relationships, and communication.
Paper 2
Authors: Jadva, V., Jones, C., Zadeh, S. 2024
Key Words: donor conception, identity, mental health, stigma, pride, donor connections, searching, wellbeing
Aim: To examine how donor conceived people’s sense of identity relates to their mental health and whether this differs depending on whether they are searching for or have found donor connections.
Findings: More positive donor conception identity was linked to better mental health and wellbeing. Those actively searching or who had not yet found connections showed greater stigma and concerns about being donor conceived compared to those who had found connections.
Participants: 88 donor-conceived adults, 18-70 years, 74% female, around 90% sperm donor conceived. 39 actively searching, 49 not actively searching, 63.6% found donor connections.
Methodology: Online survey including a donor conception identity questionnaire alongside established measures of mental health, life satisfaction, stigma, and pride. Participants’ responses were compared based on searching and connection status.
Paper 3
How Do Young Donor Conceived Children Feel About Their Families and Themselves?
Authors: Imrie, S., Lysons, J., Jadva, V., Shaw, K., Grimmel, J., Golombok, S. 2021
Key Words: egg donation, donor conceived children, child wellbeing, parent-child relationships, identity-release, psychological adjustment, family relationships, child perspectives, ART (assisted reproductive technologies)
Aim: To understand how 5-year-old donor conceived children feel about their relationships with their parents and to gather their own reports of their emotional wellbeing.
Findings: Donor conceived children reported very positive relationships with their parents and good emotional wellbeing, with many rating their relationships with their mothers as especially warm and enjoyable compared to other children.
Participants: 50 donor conceived children (egg donation), 43 IVF conceived children (comparison group). Around 5 years old (average around 66-67 months), heterosexual couple families. Majority were of White British background, and most parents were highly educated. Majority of donor conceived children were conceived via identity-release donation.
Methodology: Researchers visited families at home and interviewed children using a child-friendly task involving puppets. The children were asked simple questions about their family, their feelings, and their behaviour.
Paper 5
Authors: Zadeh, S., Jones, C.M., Basi, T., Golombok, S. 2017
Key Words: donor conception, children’s perspectives, attachment, solo mothers, mother-child relationships, donor relationships, psychological wellbeing, disclosure, identity, family relationships
Aim: To examine how donor conceived children think and feel about their donor, and whether these feelings are linked to how secure they feel in their relationship with their mother.
Findings: Children had a wide range of views about their donor – from seeing him as a stranger to thinking of him as a father. Those who felt more securely attached to their mother were more likely to have positive feelings about the donor.
Participants: 19 donor conceived children, 7-13 years (mean around 10.3 years), 10 boys (53%), 9 girls (47%). Solo mother families, all children had been told about their donor conception, where majority were told before age 3 (85%). 74% anonymous donors, 26% identifiable donors.
Methodology: Children were interviewed at home using two different interview procedures: one focused on their thoughts and feelings about being donor conceived and about their donor, and another assessed their relationship with their mother.
Paper 6
How Identity and Wellbeing Are Linked to Searching for Donor Relatives
Authors: Jadva, V., Jones, C., Zadeh, S. 2024
Key Words: donor conception, identity, wellbeing, stigma, pride, donor relatives, searching, psychological health
Aim: To examine how individuals interpret and integrate knowledge of their donor origins into their sense of self, how this relates to psychological wellbeing, and whether this differs depending on searching for or finding donor connections.
Findings: More positive donor conception identity was linked to better psychological wellbeing, while higher stigma was associated with poorer wellbeing, and those searching or yet to find connections reported more concern and stigma than those who had found connections.
Participants: 88 donor-conceived adults, 74% female. Conception type: 90% sperm donation. Recruited via Donor Conception Network, Donor Conceived Register Registrants’ Panel, and social media.
Methodology: Participants completed an online survey including the Donor Conception Identity Questionnaire (DCIQ) alongside measures of mental health, life satisfaction, stigma, and pride, and reported on whether they had searched for or found donor relatives.
Paper 7
Does Telling Children Early About Donor Conception Improve Their Wellbeing as Teenagers?
Authors: Ilioi, E., Blake, L., Jadva, V., Roman, G., Golombok, S. 2017
Key Words: donor conception, disclosure, age of disclosure, adolescence, wellbeing, family relationships, identity, surrogacy, egg donation
Aim: To investigate how the age at which children are told about their donor conception affects their psychological wellbeing and family relationships in adolescence.
Findings: Adolescents who were told about their donor conception before age 7 showed more positive family relationships and higher psychological wellbeing compared to those told later.
Participants: 141 families total, with 87 reproductive donation families: 32 sperm donation, 27 egg donation, 28 surrogacy, and 54 natural conception families (comparison group). Adolescents aged 14 years, only those aware of their conception participated.
Methodology: A study following families from infancy to age 14, using interviews, questionnaires, and observational tasks to assess family relationships and adolescent wellbeing, alongside data on when children were told about their conception.
Paper 8
Do Children Born Through Donor Conception Have Healthy Relationships and Wellbeing as Teenagers?
Authors: Golombok, S., Ilioi, E., Blake, L., Roman, G., Jadva, V. 2017
Key Words: donor conception, adolescence, parent-child relationships, psychological adjustment, surrogacy, egg donation, identity development
Aim: To investigate whether adolescents conceived through reproductive donation show differences in psychological adjustment and parent-child relationships compared to adolescents conceived without assistance.
Findings: Adolescents conceived through reproductive donation showed similar psychological adjustment to non-donor conceived peers , although some differences in parent-child relationships were observed depending on the type of donation.
Participants: 141 families total, with 87 reproductive donation families: 32 sperm donation, 27 egg donation, 28 surrogacy, and 54 natural conception families (comparison group). Adolescents were aged 14 years, and data was collected from mothers, adolescents, and teachers.
Methodology: A long-term study using interviews, questionnaires, and observational tasks to assess parent-adolescent relationships and adolescent psychological adjustment.
Additional Papers where identity and psychological well-being among donor conceived people is referenced but not a main focus
Paper 9: How Young Adults Feel About Being Donor-Conceived or Born Through Surrogacy
Paper 10: How Keeping Donor Conception a Secret Affects Family Relationships and Identity
Paper 11: How Effective Is DNA Testing in Helping People in the UK and Ireland Find Their Biological Parents?
Paper 12: How Donor-Conceived Adults Use DNA Registers to Find Biological Relatives
Paper 13: How Teenagers Feel About Being Born Through Surrogacy or Donor Conception
Paper 14: What Do Young Donor-Conceived Children Understand About Having a Donor and Growing Up Without a Father?
Paper 15: What Happens When Donor-Conceived Adults Search (or Don’t Search) for Genetic Relatives?
Huge thanks to Xinia for putting this page together!